VI. Opposition To Marriage For Same-Sex Couples Based On The Purported Superiority Of Biological Parenthood Is Not Supported By Research.
42. Advocacy organizations opposed to marriage for same-sex couples sometimes argue that gay and lesbian couples should not be permitted to marry because, they claim, children do best in families with two biological parents and, by implication, that having same-sex parents is bad for children.
43. However, the practice of forming families in which the children are not biologically related to one or both parents is hardly unique to same-sex couples. Many heterosexual couples become parents through adoption or the use of assisted reproduction involving donor sperm or ova. Indeed, most couples using donor sperm are heterosexual couples.
44. In any case, there is no basis for the asserted superiority of biological parenthood. Children adopted early in life (as opposed to children who were adopted later, often after difficult early life experiences) have outcomes similar to those of children raised by their biological parents. And children conceived through the use of donor sperm or ova (whether to different-sex or same-sex parents) fare no differently than children raised by two biological parents. In addition, a substantial body of research on parents who have chosen to raise biologically unrelated children shows that such parents are at least as competent as parents raising their biological children; indeed, many studies show that these parents are more competent or committed in some respects.
45. While some studies show that children do better when raised by both of their parents than when raised by one parent and the parent’s new partner (i.e., step-parent), these 20 differences are not due to biological relatedness. They are due to the fact that children in stepfamilies have experienced family disruption and typically also the conflict and loss of a parental relationship, which, as discussed above, all put children at higher risk for adverse outcomes. The studies comparing two parent families to step-parent families have not examined children being raised by same-sex couples who jointly planned to bring children into their families either by birth or adoption, and jointly raise the children. One would not expect the difficulties experienced by children in step-families to appear in same-sex parent families rearing children in intact families. As explained above, the research comparing children with same-sex and different-sex parents shows no differences in outcome.
46. Studies examining the impact of step-family life sometimes use the term “biological parents” as shorthand to distinguish between parents (whether biologically related to the child or not) and step-parents. Unfortunately, advocacy groups opposed to marriage for same-sex couples sometimes erroneously cite these studies when claiming that biological parenthood best promotes children’s well-being even though these studies offer no support for this proposition.9
Lähteet:
Non-biologically related parents are capable of raising children as effectively as biological parents
Brodzinsky, D. & Palacios, J. (Eds.) (2005). Psychological issues in adoption: Research and practice. London: Praeger.
Freeman, T. & Golombok, S. (2012) Donor insemination: A follow up study of disclosure decisions, child adjustment and family relationships at adolescence. Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 25, 193-203. Golombok, S. (2013). Families created by reproductive donation: Issues and research. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 61-65. Golombok, S., Cook, R., Bish, A., & Murray, C. (1995). Families created by the new reproductive technologies: Quality of parenting and social and emotional development of the child. Child Development, 66, 285-298.7 Golombok, S., Jadva, V., Lycett, E., Muray, C., & MacCallum, F. (2004). Families created by gamete donation: follow-up at age 2. Human Reproduction. 20, 286- 293. Golombok, S., Lycett, E., MacCallum, F., Jadva, V., Murray, C., Rust, J. Abdalla, H., Jenkins, J., & Margara, R. (2004). Parenting infants conceived by gamete donation. Journal of Family Psychology. 18, 443-452. Golombok, S., MacCallum, Goodman, E., & Rutter, M. (2002). Families with children conceived by donor insemination: A follow up at age twelve. Child Development, 73, 952-968. Golombok, S., Murray, C., Brinsden, P., & Abdalla, H. (1999). Social versus biological parenting: Family functioning and the socioemotional development of children conceived by egg or sperm donation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 519-527. Golombok, S., Murray, C., Jadva, V., Lycett, E., MacCallum, F., & Rust, J. (2006). Nongenetic and non-gestational parenthood: consequences for parent-child relationships and the psychological well-being of mothers, fathers and children at age 3. Human Reproduction, 21, 1918-1924. Jadva, V., Freeman, T., Kramer, W. & Golombok, S. (2009). The experiences of adolescents and adults conceived by sperm donation: Comparisons by age of disclosure and family type. Human Reproduction, 24, 1909-1919. Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Adoptees do not lack self esteem: A metaanalysis of studies of self-esteem of transracial, international, and domestic adoptees. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 1067-1083. Lansford, J. E., Ceballo, R., Abbey, A., & Stewart, A. J. (2001). Does family structure matter? A comparison of adoptive, two-parent biological, single mother, stepfather, and stepmother households. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 840-851. MacCullum, F., & Keeley, S. (2007). Embryo donation families: A follow-up in middle childhood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 840-851. Palacios, J., & Brodzinsky, D.M. (2010). Adoption research: Trends, topics, and outcomes. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 34, 270-284. Stams, G.J.J. M., Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2002). Maternal sensitivity, infant attachment, and temperament in early childhood predict adjustment to middle childhood: The case of adopted children and their biologically unrelated parents. Developmental Psychology, 38, 806-821. Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2006). Adoption as intervention: Meta-analytic evidence for massive catch-up and plasticity in physical, socio-emotional, and 8 cognitive development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1228- 1245. Van IJzendoorn, M.H., Juffer, F., & Klien Poelhuis, C.W. (2005). Adoption and cognitive development: A meta-analytic comparison of adopted and non-adopted children’s IQ and school performance. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 301-306.
